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私たちは、人々が好きな有名人について読んで、それについて気分を良くすることができるスペースを作りたかったのです.私たちは、人々が有名人についてポジティブな方法でゴシップできる場所を作りたかった.
私たちは、何年もの間、日本のエンターテインメント ニュースを生き、呼吸してきた情熱的なエンターテインメント ニュース ジャンキーの小さなチームです。
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Location[edit]
The high, arid plateau stretches more than 80 km (50 mi) between the towns of Nazca and Palpa on the Pampas de Jumana, approximately 400 km (250 mi) south of Lima. The main PE-1S Panamericana Sur runs parallel to it. The main concentration of designs is in a 10 by 4 km (6 by 2 mi) rectangle, south of the hamlet of San Miguel de la Pascana. In this area, the most notable geoglyphs are visible.[citation needed]
Rediscovery[edit]
The first published mention of the Nazca Lines was by Pedro Cieza de León in his book of 1553, and he described them as trail markers.[15]
In 1569, Luis Monzón reported having seen ancient ruins in Peru, including the remains of “roads”.[16]
Although the lines were partially visible from nearby hills, the first to report them in the 20th century were Peruvian military and civilian pilots. In 1927 Peruvian archaeologist Toribio Mejía Xesspe spotted them while he was hiking through the foothills. He discussed them at a conference in Lima in 1939.[17]
Paul Kosok, an American historian from Long Island University in New York, is credited as the first scholar to study the Nazca Lines in depth. While in Peru in 1940–41 to study ancient irrigation systems, he flew over the lines and realized that one was in the shape of a bird. Another chance observation helped him see how lines converged on the horizon at the winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere. He began to study how the lines might have been created, as well as to try to determine their purpose. He was joined by archaeologist Richard P. Schaedel from the United States, and Maria Reiche, a German mathematician and archaeologist from Lima, to try to determine the purpose of the Nazca Lines. They proposed that the figures were designed as astronomical markers on the horizon to show where the sun and other celestial bodies rose on significant dates. Archaeologists, historians, and mathematicians have all tried to determine the purpose of the lines.
Determining how they were made has been easier than determining why they were made. Scholars have theorized that the Nazca people could have used simple tools and surveying equipment to construct the lines. Archaeological surveys have found wooden stakes in the ground at the end of some lines, which supports this theory. One such stake was carbon-dated and was the basis for establishing the age of the design complex.[18]
Joe Nickell, an American investigator of the paranormal, religious artifacts, and folk mysteries, reproduced the figures in the early 21st century by using the same tools and technology that would have been available to the Nazca people. In so doing, he refuted the 1969 hypothesis of Erich von Däniken,[19] who suggested that “ancient astronauts” had constructed these works. Scientific American characterized Nickell’s work as “remarkable in its exactness” when compared to the existing lines.[20] With careful planning and simple technologies, Nickell proved that a small team of people could recreate even the largest figures within days, without any aerial assistance.[21]
Most of the lines are formed on the ground by a shallow trench, with a depth between 10 and 15 cm (4 and 6 in). Such trenches were made by removing for a portion of the design, the reddish-brown, iron oxide-coated pebbles that cover the surface of the Nazca Desert. When this gravel is removed, the light-colored clay earth exposed in the bottom of the trench contrasts sharply in color and tone with the surrounding land surface, producing visible lines. This sub-layer contains high amounts of lime. With moisture from morning mist, it hardens to form a protective layer that shields the lines from winds, thereby preventing erosion.[22]
The Nazca used this technique to “draw” several hundred simple, but huge, curvilinear animal and human figures. In total, the earthwork project is huge and complex: the area encompassing the lines is nearly 450 km2 (170 sq mi), and the largest figures can span nearly 370 m (1,200 ft).[5] Some figures have been measured: the hummingbird is 93 m (305 ft) long, the condor is 134 m (440 ft), the monkey is 93 by 58 m (305 by 190 ft), and the spider is 47 m (154 ft). The very dry, windless, and constant climate of the Nazca region has preserved the lines well.[3] This desert is one of the driest on Earth and maintains a temperature near 25 °C (77 °F) year round. The lack of wind has helped keep the lines uncovered and visible.[citation needed]
The discovery of two new small figures was announced in early 2011 by a Japanese team from Yamagata University. One of these resembles a human head and is dated to the early period of Nazca culture or earlier. The other, undated, is an animal. The team has been conducting fieldwork there since 2006, and by 2012 has found approximately 100 new geoglyphs.[23] In March 2012, the university announced that it would open a new research center at the site in September 2012, related to a longterm project to study the area for the next 15 years.[24]
A June 2019 article in Smithsonian magazine describes recent work by a multi-disciplinary team of Japanese researchers who identified/re-identified some of the birds depicted.[25] They note that birds are the animals most frequently depicted in the Nazca geoglyphs. The team believes that some of the bird images that previous researchers assumed to be indigenous species more closely resemble exotic birds found in non-desert habitats. They speculated that “The reason exotic birds were depicted in the geoglyphs instead of indigenous birds is closely related to the purpose of the etching process.”[26]
The discovery of 143 new geoglyphs on the Nazca Pampa and in the surrounding area was announced in 2019 by Yamagata University and IBM Japan.[27] One of these was found by using machine learning-based methods.[28]
Lines forming the shape of a cat were discovered on a hill in 2020.[29] The figure is on a steep slope prone to erosion, explaining why it had not previously been discovered [30] until archaeologists carefully studied the image.[31] Drones are revealing sites for further research.[32]
See also[edit]
- Cerne Abbas Giant
- Nazca Lines
References[edit]
- ^ “Atacama Giant”. Atlas Obscura. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
- ^ Hirst, K. Kris. “The Geoglyphic Art of Chile’s Atacama Desert Messages, Memories and Rites of the Landscape”. about.com. Retrieved 24 January 2013.
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This article about a Chilean building or structure is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. |
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Ancient[edit]
Perhaps the most famous geoglyphs are the Nazca lines in Peru. The cultural significance of these geoglyphs for their creators remains unclear, despite many hypotheses.[1] The “Works of the Old Men” in Arabia, “stone-built structures that are far more numerous than (the) Nazca Lines, far more extensive in the area that they cover, and far older,”[2] have been described as geoglyphs by Amelia Sparavigna, a physics professor at Politecnico di Torino in Italy.[3] The use of this term to describe these features is probably inaccurate, as recent research has shown that most were not constructed primarily as art, but were rather built to serve a range of purposes including burial sites and funerary customs, aiding in the trapping of migratory animals, and as cleared areas for camps, houses and animal enclosures.[4]
The Nazca Lines in Peru. This photograph shows a depiction of a hummingbird
Since the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs have been discovered on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest, Brazil, leading to claims about Pre-Columbian civilizations.[5][6][7] Ondemar Dias is accredited with first discovering the geoglyphs in 1977 and Alceu Ranzi with furthering their discovery after flying over Acre.[8][9]
Other areas with geoglyphs include Megaliths in the Urals, South Australia (Marree Man, which is not ancient, but rather a modern work of art, with mysterious origins), Western Australia and parts of the Great Basin Desert in the southwestern United States. Hill figures, turf mazes and the stone-lined labyrinths of Scandinavia, Iceland, Lappland and the former Soviet Union are types of geoglyphs.
The south of England has a number of equine and human figures cut into chalk hillsides. Examples include the Uffington White Horse, Cerne Abbas Giant, Westbury White Horse, and the Long Man of Wilmington. Some are ancient, others from the last few centuries.
More than 50 geoglyphs are found in Kazakhstan.[10]
Description[edit]
The band lies between 13°42′59.9″S 75°52′28.46″W / 13.716639°S 75.8745722°W and 13°42′20″S 75°52′28.46″W / 13.70556°S 75.8745722°W extending in a basically north-south orientation over uneven terrain. The band begins at the edge of a valley and runs up a hill for about 1.5 km. The holes, actually pits with raised edges, are about 1 meter in diameter and 50–100 cm deep. They are arranged in discernable blocks or segments along a band that varies in width from 14–21 meters, with an average width of about 19 meters.[1]
Recent investigations[edit]
Modern attention was drawn to the site in 1933, when the aviator Robert Shippee published an aerial photograph in National Geographic.[1]
Victor Wolfgang von Hagen surveyed the area in 1953. In The Royal Road of the Inca he describes these as pre-Inca graves, writing[3] that:
These circular, stone-lined although unused graves lay in rows, seven to nine, and marched up the 50° angle to the slope called Mt. Sierpe, that is the “shaking” line of graves reminding the one who named it of a serpent. There are over 5,000 such graves; empty, graves in so far as they are circular and stone-lined, and of the same construction of those graves which are found with mummies, weavings and pottery. For years, ever since 1931 they appeared on the photographic plates of the aerial surveys of the Shippee–Johnson expedition, they were the “strange and mysterious pockmarks”, but when discovered and surveyed by the von Hagen expedition in 1953 and found to be unused graves, the mystery was compounded. The Inca engineers would have seen the same phenomena but as in the case of the equally mysterious Nasca lines, they filled in those which interfered with the road and ran it over and through them.
Other visits were made in the early 1970s by archaeologists Dwight Wallace and Frederic Engel.[1]
Archaeologist John Hyslop wrote in his 1984 book The Inka Road System that “Circular structures, sometimes semisubterranean, that may have been used for storage are also found on the Peruvian south coast in the sites Quebrada de la Vaca (Andes 1960:252, 253) and at Tambo Colorado. Hundreds of stone-lined circular holes in rows have been found on a low ridge on the north side of the Pisco Valley (Shippee 1933:93; Wallace 1971:105–106). Although their role has not been determined, a hypothesis for investigation is that they were used for storage. They are between two important Inka sites (Tambo Colorado and Lima la Vieja), and very near the point where the Inka coastal road crosses the road to the highlands. They might be one of the empire’s larger storage sites.”[4]
In 2015, archaeologists from UCLA made a brief visit to the site, using photography from drone aircraft to create a detailed map. They speculate that the holes could have been used to measure produce given to the Inca state as tribute; the measurements might have been recorded on Incan khipus and reported to government officials. The archaeologists hope to do further studies to detect pollen or phytoliths that could tend to confirm this hypothesis.[1][5]
Paracas mummy bundles[edit]
The dry environment of southern Peru’s Pacific coast allows organic materials to be preserved when buried.[2] Mummified human remains were found in a tomb in the Paracas peninsula of Peru, buried under layers of cloth textiles.[3] The dead were wrapped in layers of cloth called “mummy bundles”. These bodies were found at the Great Paracas Necropolis along the south Pacific coast of the Andes.[4] At the Necropolis there were two large clusters of crowded pit tombs, totaling about 420 bodies, dating to around 300–200 BCE.[5] The mummified bodies in each tomb were wrapped in textiles.[6] The textiles would have required many hours of work as the plain wrappings were very large and the clothing was finely woven and embroidered. The larger mummy bundles had many layers of bright colored garments and headdresses.[3][7] Sheet gold and shell bead jewelry was worn by both men and women, and some were tattooed.[8] The shape of these mummy bundles has been compared to a seed, or a human head.[2]
According to Anne Paul, this shape could have been a conscious choice by the people, with the seed a symbol of rebirth.[3][7] Paul also suggests that the detail and high quality of the textiles found in the mummy bundles show that these fabrics were used for important ceremonial purposes.[2][7] Both native Andean cotton and the hair of camelids like the wild vicuña and domestic llama or alpaca come in many natural colors. Yarns were also dyed in a wide range of hues, used together in loom weaving and many other techniques. This combination of materials shows trading relationships with other communities at lower and higher elevations.[7]
The imagery found on these textiles included ceremonial practices.[9] Some depicted a fallen figure, or possibly flying. Some figures appear to have face paint, and hold a severed head, also called trophy heads.[9] Victims’ heads were severed and collected during battles or raids.[3] Possibly, the head of a person was considered their life force, the place in the body where the spirit was located.[9] Not only did these textiles show important symbols of the Paracas cosmology, it is thought that they were worn to establish gender, social standing, authority, and indicate the community in which one resided.[8]
Different color schemes characterize the textiles of Paracas Cavernas, early Paracas Necropolis and later Nazca-related styles. [10] The dyes used came from many regions of the Andes and are an example of reciprocity, as people from different altitudes traded with one another for different goods.[9] The color red comes from the cochineal bug found on the prickly pear cactus.[11] The cochineal was ground up with mortar and pestle to create a red pigment.[11] Yellow dyes could be made from the qolle tree and quico flowers, while orange dyes can be extracted from a type of moss called beard lichen.[11] For the color green the most common plant used is the cg’illca, mixed with a mineral called collpa.[11] While blues are created from a tara, the deeper a hue of blue, the more the mineral collpa was added.[11] The process of creating dyes could take up to several hours. Then it could take another two hours for women to boil and dye the fibers.[11] This work was followed by spinning and weaving the fibers.
The woven textiles of Paracas were made on backstrap looms generally in solid color. These webs were richly ornamented with embroidery in two different styles. The earlier linear style embroidery was done in running stitches closely following the furrows of the weaving itself. Red, green, gold and blue color was used to delineate nested animal figures, which emerge from the background with upturned mouths, while the stitching creates the negative space. These embroideries are highly abstracted and difficult to interpret.[12] The later used Block-color style embroidery was made with stem stitches outlining and solidly filling curvilinear figures in a large variety of vivid colors. The therianthropomorphic figures are illustrated with great detail with systematically varied coloring. [13]
The textiles and jewelry in the tombs and mummy bundles attracted looters.[5] Once discovered, the Paracas Necropolis was looted heavily between the years 1931 and 1933, during the Great Depression, particularly in the Wari Kayan section.[14] The amount of stolen materials is not known; however, Paracas textiles began to appear on the international market in the following years.[14] It is believed the majority of Paracas textiles outside of the Andes were smuggled out of Peru.[14]
Paracas border, flying man detail. This is a famous motif from the Paracas Necropolis burial textiles. Dates to 450–175 BCE but it is in pristine condition. The field of view is about 10 inches (25.4 cm) wide. The Entire textile can be viewed at Metropolitan Museum website
Due to a lack of laws to preserve artifacts and against smuggling, thefts continued to increase, particularly of South American artifacts.[14] In 1970 UNESCO created the Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property.[15]
What Are the Nazca Lines?
There are three basic types of Nazca Lines: straight lines, geometric designs and pictorial representations.
There are more than 800 straight lines on the coastal plain, some of which are 30 miles (48 km) long. Additionally, there are over 300 geometric designs, which include basic shapes such as triangles, rectangles, and trapezoids, as well as spirals, arrows, zig-zags and wavy lines.
The Nazca Lines are perhaps best known for the representations of about 70 animals and plants, some of which measure up to 1,200 feet (370 meters) long. Examples include a spider, hummingbird, cactus plant, monkey, whale, llama, duck, flower, tree, lizard and dog.
The Nazca people also created other forms, such as a humanoid figure (nicknamed “The Astronaut”), hands and some unidentifiable depictions.
In 2011, a Japanese team discovered a new geoglyph that appears to represent a scene of decapitation, which, at about 4.2 meters long and 3.1 meters wide, is far smaller than other Nazca figures and not easily seen from aerial surveys. The Nazca people were known to collect “trophy heads,” and research in 2009 revealed that the majority of trophy skulls came from the same populations as the people they were buried with (rather than outside cultures).
In 2016, the same team found another geoglyph, this time one that depicts a 98-foot-long (30-meter-long) mythical creature that has many legs and spotted markings, and is sticking out its tongue.
And in 2018, Peruvian archaeologists announced they had discovered more than 50 new geoglyphs in the region, using drone technology to map the landmarks in unprecedented detail.
How the Nazca Lines Were Created
Anthropologists believe the Nazca culture, which began around 100 B.C. and flourished from A.D. 1 to 700, created the majority of the Nazca Lines. The Chavin and Paracas cultures, which predate the Nazca, may have also created some of the geoglyphs.
The Nazca Lines are located in the desert plains of the Rio Grande de Nasca river basin, an archaeological site that spans more than 75,000 hectares and is one of the driest places on Earth.
The desert floor is covered in a layer of iron oxide-coated pebbles of a deep rust color. The ancient peoples created their designs by removing the top 12 to 15 inches of rock, revealing the lighter-colored sand below. They likely began with small-scale models and carefully increased the models’ proportions to create the large designs.
Most of the known geoglyphs were formed by removing rocks from only the border of the figures (creating a kind of outline), while others were formed by removing rocks from the interior.
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Given the low amount of rain, wind and erosion in the desert, the geoglyphs have remained largely unscathed throughout the centuries.
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概要[編集]
ナスカの地上絵は、1939年6月22日考古学者のポール・コソック博士が上空を飛行した時に発見された。その後ドイツの数学者、マリア・ライヘが終生この地に住み着き、彼女を中心として、地上絵の解明作業と、保護が行われるようになった。
近年でも新たな地上絵が発見されており、2011年1月18日、山形大学は、人文学部坂井正人教授（文化人類学・アンデス考古学）らのグループがペルー南部のナスカ台地で新たな地上絵2つを発見したと発表した。新たな地上絵2つ（人の頭部、動物）はナスカ川の北岸付近で見つかった。人間の頭部と見られる絵は横約4.2m、縦約3.1mで、両目・口・右耳の形が確認されている。動物と見られる絵は、横約2.7m、縦約6.9m。種類は特定できていない。山形大学は2012年10月30日にナスカ市にナスカ研究所を開所した[1]。2013年に入って同大はさらに2つ並んだ人物と見られる地上絵を発見し、更に2015年には24点もの地上絵が新たに発見されたと発表した。また2019年には143点もの地上絵が新たに発見されたと発表した[2][3]。
近年、自動車の侵入による破壊が著しく消滅の危機にある。具体的な人為的破壊の例としてはグリーンピース (NGO)のパフォーマンスによるものが知られている[4]。地上絵のあるエリアは保護のため許可なしには立ち入れず、立ち入りの際には専用の靴を履くこととなっているがそれが守られなかった。また、いたずらによるものと思われる地上絵も複数発見されている。
Nazca Lines
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Nazca Lines
出典:『Wiktionary』 (2017/04/15 21:57 UTC 版)
Nazca Lines
出典:『Wikipedia』 (2011/07/11 18:41 UTC 版)
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The lines revealed
Peruvian archaeologist Toribio Mejia Xesspe was the first to systematically study the lines in 1926. However, since the lines are virtually impossible to identify from ground level, they were only first brought to public awareness with the advent of flight—by pilots flying commercial planes over Peru in the 1930s. American professor Paul Kosok investigated and found himself at the foot of a line on June 22, 1941—just one day after the winter solstice. At the end of a full day studying the lines, Kosok looked up from his work to catch the sunset in direct alignment with the line. Kosok called the 310 square mile stretch of high desert “the largest astronomy book in the world”.
Kosok was followed by the German Maria Reiche, who became known as the Lady of the Lines. Reiche studied the lines for 40 years and fought unyieldingly for her theories on the lines’ astronomical and calendrical purpose (she received a National Geographic grant in 1974 for her work). Reiche battled single-handedly to protect the site; she even lived in a small house near the desert so she could personally protect the lines from reckless visitors.
What are the lines?
The lines are known as geoglyphs – drawings on the ground made by removing rocks and earth to create a “negative” image. The rocks which cover the desert have oxidized and weathered to a deep rust color, and when the top 12-15 inches of rock is removed, a light-colored, high contrasting sand is exposed. Because there’s so little rain, wind and erosion, the exposed designs have stayed largely intact for 500 to 2000 years.
Scientists believe that the majority of lines were made by the Nasca people, who flourished from around A.D. 1 to 700.
Certain areas of the pampa look like a well-used chalk board, with lines overlapping other lines, and designs cut through with straight lines of both ancient and more modern origin.
The theories
The Kosok-Reiche astronomy theories held true until the 1970s when a group of American researchers arrived in Peru to study the glyphs. This new wave of research started to poke holes in the archeo-astronomy view of the lines (not to mention the radical theories in the ‘60s relating to aliens and ancient astronauts).
Johan Reinhard, a National Geographic Explorer-in-Residence, brought a multidisciplinary approach to the analysis of the lines: “Look at the large ecological system, what’s around Nasca, where were the Nasca people located.” In a region that receives only about 20 minutes of rain per year, water was clearly an important factor.
“It seems likely that most of the lines did not point at anything on the geographical or celestial horizon, but rather led to places where rituals were performed to obtain water and fertility of crops,” wrote Reinhard in his book The Nasca Lines: A New Perspective on their Origin and Meanings.
Anthony Aveni, a former National Geographic grantee, agrees, “Our discoveries clearly showed that the straight lines and trapezoids are related to water … but not used to find water, but rather used in connection with rituals.”
“The trapezoids are big wide spaces where people can come in and out,” says Aveni. “The rituals were likely involved with the ancient need to propitiate or pay a debt to the gods…probably to plead for water.”
Reinhard points out that spiral designs and themes have also been found at other ancient Peruvian sites. Animal symbolism is common throughout the Andes and are found in the biomorphs drawn upon the Nasca plain: spiders are believed to be a sign of rain, hummingbirds are associated with fertility, and monkeys are found in the Amazon—an area with an abundance of water.
“No single evaluation proves a theory about the lines, but the combination of archeology, ethnohistory, and anthropology builds a solid case,” says Reinhard. Add new technological research to the mix, and there’s no doubt that the world’s understanding of the Nasca lines will continue to evolve.
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